Developing Problem-solving and Thinking Skills in the Mainstream Curriculum

Belle Wallace (August 2009)

Abstract

Too often the development of students' problem-solving and thinking skills is perceived as a series of add-on activities which are provided, almost as a reward, when students have completed the required basic classroom tasks. Or, such activities are carried out in after-school clubs as enrichment or extension activities. While these activities can be very exciting, very able learners need more than 'add-ons'; they need a regular and satisfying diet of classroom experiences which challenge and motivate them. The purpose of this article is, therefore, to discuss the principles which should underpin challenge within the mainstream curriculum; the challenge of integrating problem-solving and thinking skills into regular classroom learning experiences. The writer recognises that adapting the mainstream curriculum is not easy: often familiar teaching methods need to be rethought, classroom resources need to be adjusted towards greater depth and breadth, organisational arrangements need to be modified. In addition, there is the pervasive demand for teachers to cover content at the expense of process. However, if we are to begin to meet very able learners' needs in the classroom, then we, as educators, have to accept the challenge of providing appropriate challenge for the learners in our care.

Introduction

'We need thoughtful learning. We need schools that --- focus not just on schooling memories but on schooling minds. --- We need 'a literacy of thoughtfulness.' We need educational settings with 'thinking-centred' learning, where students learn by thinking through what they are learning about.' P 7.

We can think of 'smart schools' --- as exhibiting three characteristics:

Informed. Administrators, teachers, and indeed students in the smart school know a lot about human thinking and learning and how it works best. And they know a lot about school structure and collaboration and how it works best.

Energetic. The smart school requires spirit as much as information. In the smart school, measures are taken to cultivate positive energy in the structure of the school, the style of administration, and the treatment of teachers and students.

Thoughtful. Smart schools are thoughtful places, in the double sense of caring and mindful. First of all, people are sensitive to one another's needs and treat others thoughtfully. Second, both the teaching/learning and the school decision-making processes are thinking centered.' P 3.

'Smart Schools: From Training Memories to Educating Minds' David Perkins (1992) New York: The Free Press

More than ever before, schools are aware that they need to work 'smarter' rather than 'harder' for two fundamental, common-sense reasons. Firstly, the daily demand on teachers means that there is very little energy left at the end of the day to work any harder! Secondly, we are well aware that dealing with current living and working conditions requires thinking skills and problem-solving abilities - so that we can become smarter at coping with the increasing complexities that bombard us.

Hence the purpose of this article is not to suggest 'yet another initiative' that

NOTE: The figures in this article have been taken from TASC publications and readers are invited to follow up the references in greater detail by referring to the original publications.

Figure 1: The basic TASC Problem-solving Framework

Some frequently asked questions

The questions below are often asked by teachers during discussion on TASC INSET days across the country. Reflect on what you think about these issues!

Q: I have always asked the pupils to think! I constantly ask questions to make sure the pupils understand.
A: Yes, I agree that teachers are concerned that pupils are thinking, but perhaps there is a need to examine and sharpen our classroom practice. More than ever before, the complexity of modern life demands problem-solving and thinking skills.

Q: But only the brightest pupils will ever be able to think logically at a high level. Most pupils are lazy and don't want to think for themselves. In any case, getting them to think about behaving decently is more important these days.
A: Intelligence is not a fixed commodity and with appropriate teaching, all pupils can become better thinkers. Most pupils have never had the chance to work systematically on developing their capacity to think more effectively. With help, all pupils are capable of reasoned decision-making. We need to model thinking skills in the classroom and this not only supports the slower learners but also provides the faster learners with the skills they need for more independent learning.

Q: But some children inherit the capacity to think and solve problems. It's in their genes and they thrive on the challenge!
A: It's quite true that we all are genetically different but a good 'thinking skills diet' helps us to maximise our mental potential just as a good 'food diet' maximises our physical potential. It's getting the right balance between 'nature' and 'nurture' that's critical. We can actively develop pupils' minds through the right kind of teaching - teaching pupils to use a range of thinking skills and learning strategies rather than telling them what to think or how to learn.

Q: Some people recommend special lessons for the teaching of problem-solving skills - 10 minutes a day or one lesson a week.
A: Well, problem-solving should not be an add-on to the curriculum - it should be an integral part of the curriculum. Pupils learn thinking skills when they are embedded in relevant content and when teachers deliberately 'teach for transfer'. The best way for pupils acquire a range of skills and strategies is to first embed them in real world scenarios with which pupils can identify, and then to call upon the use of these skills in other contexts.

Q: But the National Curriculum Framework is not always relevant to pupils' lives.
A: No, often it isn't immediately relevant to learners' lives, but as teachers, we are good at finding ways to make things relevant - finding the key to arouse learners' interest! We need to present as much content as possible as a problem to be solved - a dilemma in history, a crisis in a novel, an environmental problem in geography, an examination of evidence in science.

Q: Some things need to be directly taught and some skills need to be practised. It can't be all problem-solving and thinking skills.
A: No, it can't. The way we all learn is through a balance of direct teaching, demonstration, practice, rote-learning and problem-solving. Any kind of practice needs the learners to understand the reason for it - the end product - where it is leading. Persevering with redrafting and making a final effort is made easier if the work is to be presented to a real audience.

Q: Our thinking processes develop with maturity and experience, so why do we need special teaching?
A: Yes, we all learn through experience, but if we have a good role-model to follow, we make faster progress and learn more easily. A teacher who shares her thinking processes with her pupils is modelling thinking. The senior learner is inducting the junior learner into different styles of thinking: the learner then practises until he or she has gained competency and can manage to use the strategies independently.

Q: Is it important to have a consistent approach to the teaching of problem- solving and thinking skills? Should there be a whole school policy? And, surely, some subjects have 'subject specific' skills?
A: There is a generic core of thinking skills and strategies which constitute a broad problem-solving approach across the curriculum. And there are also subject specific skills such as ways of organising mathematical thinking, writing in a specific genre, or recording a science experiment. However, a whole school approach to the development of a generic core of skills gives consistency across the curriculum and, consequently, skills are more easily transferred across subjects.

Looking at both sides of the argument!

• The National Curriculum Framework encompasses a massive amount of content that must be covered in a certain time.

I agree

The content in the National Curriculum Framework is extensive,

but

a great deal of it is very repetitive and many learners repeat skills and content they have already mastered. If we can reduce the amount of unnecessary repetition, then we create more time for using the content in a problem-solving way.

• There are specific subject skills and strategies that we need to teach and demonstrate and this can't always be done in a 'problem-solving' way.

I agree

Demonstration, whole class teaching and rote learning are important learning techniques,

but

we need to give the pupils the reasons why we use these techniques: and then embed what the learners are learning in a problem-solving exercise as often as is possible.

• I need to repeat things often because learners don't remember.

I agree

Learners do need to 'revisit' ideas as a base for further extension and they also need to practise skills in order to perfect them,

but

if we spent more time encouraging learners to reflect upon and consolidate their initial learning, then they would mentally crystallise what they had learned and would be able to recall it more easily.

• We need to repeat things because learners don't transfer knowledge and skills from one subject to another.

I agree

Transfer of knowledge and skills across subjects is a perennial problem,

but

transfer of knowledge and skills does not happen automatically. We need to consciously teach for transfer and help learners not only to see the cross-curricular links, but also the links with everyday life.

Recently, there has been the realisation in national government that the Curriculum Framework needs to emphasise the importance of the development of problem-solving and thinking skills across the curriculum. It is apparent that many pupils are failing to reach the higher levels of achievement, especially the more able pupils who should be attaining the highest levels. (Office for Standards in Education: OFSTED 1994). Memorisation of content is not enough - the highest levels of achievement require problem-solving strategies and the thinking skills needed for dealing with higher order questions. To address this need, teachers, across the country, are regaining the confidence to address the process of the curriculum alongside the content.

However, the writer stresses that 'problem-solving and thinking skills' are not just for very able pupils: When the fresh breeze of problem-solving and thinking skills blows, all leaves rustle. Teaching children a range of problem-solving strategies and thinking skills enables all pupils to learn more efficiently.

Undoubtedly, good teachers have always taught with the aim of developing pupils' thinking skills, but this has often lacked coherence and consistence: and with the increase of administrative work and curriculum content, those teaching techniques which we all know are good practice, have been pushed to one side. However, the climate is right for us to take stock of how we teach and to extend and consolidate existing good practice.

It is important to stress again that extending and consolidating a problem-solving and thinking skills approach across the curriculum provides the less able with a framework for the 'mental scaffolding' they need to develop their potential. The more able are equipped with a set of problem-solving strategies which enables them to work more independently on small group or individual activities.However, classroom activities that systematically develop thinking encourage and promote greater differentiation of pupil response: but when the ethos of the class is that everyone matters and can contribute to the whole, then it is acceptable to show different strengths and weaknesses.

Theoretical background to the model of problem-solving and thinking skills used throughout this article

In the mid - 1980s, Belle Wallace and Harvey B. Adams surveyed the main thinking skills packages that were already published and they visited key areas around the world where there were major thinking skills projects in operation. Then, adopting an eclectic approach that embraced the most successful elements of the range of thinking skills projects they had evaluated, they conducted a large-scale action research project with groups of disadvantaged learners and their teachers over an intensive period of ten years. Strategies and methodologies were trialled, evaluated and reflected upon by the researchers, the participating teachers, a group of educational psychologists, and, importantly, the pupils. The key to the success of the action research project lay in the quality of the reflection, consequent rethinking and trialling of the thinking skills and problem-solving strategies being used. This process culminated in the publication of TASC: Thinking Actively in a Social Context (Wallace and Adams, 1993), which sets out a generic framework for the development of a thinking and problem-solving curriculum.

The remainder of this article examines the TASC Framework: the theoretical base, the teaching methodology, and the range of core skills and strategies that should be incorporated into any programme claiming to develop a problem-solving and thinking skills approach to the curriculum.

What does TASC mean?

Figure 2. (Mindmap 7) The meaning of TASC and its essential tenets

Thinking - We are all capable of thinking, and improving our thinking! Thinking makes us human, capable and caring.

Actively - We all need to be active and do our own thinking - no-one can do our thinking to us! We need to be involved and interested and to do our thinking for ourselves - with appropriate guidance of course.

Social - We learn best when we can talk and work with others. We do a lot of learning when we share activities, testing out our ideas, listening to alternative ways of doing the task, often copying ‘better’ ideas.

Context - The context needs to be relevant to our background and stage of development. We all learn when we understand not only what we are learning but also why we are learning and where it will lead us.

Understanding the theory that informs the base of TASC: Thinking Actively in a Social Context

One of the most important strengths of a good teacher is a high level of emotional intelligence which allows us to make decisions which are 'intuitive' and 'feelings based': but we need to defend those decisions with sound educational theory. Hence it is important to understand the two most important theories about how children best learn, which together form the underlying rationale from which TASC developed.

Vytgotsky's 'Development of Higher Psychological Processes'

Figure 3: Vygotsky's Development of Higher Psychological

How can we help children to learn?

Considering the broad principles of the teaching methodology that underpin TASC

Outstanding teachers are 'gifted' in using their emotional intelligence: utilising both their awareness of themselves and their awareness of others to develop classroom rapport. As skilled communicators, they intuitively understand and respond effectively to the dynamics of the classroom. They are good mediators of learning, facilitators of interaction, and often they become mentors who inspire children to learn.

The purpose of this section, therefore, is not to suggest that the teaching principles of TASC are 'new' or 'revolutionary', but to invite the reader to reflect on, consolidate, and confirm good practice and possibly to extend good teaching strategies even further towards excellence.

An invitation to the reader to reflect on classroom teaching strategies

• Do you adopt a problem-solving model and share it with the learners?
• Do you name the skills and strategies being used and give ample practice?
• Do you embed the skills and strategies in appropriate problems?
• Do you develop and use appropriate language for thinking?
• Do you consciously give attention to and regular feedback to develop self-concept, motivation, locus of control and classroom ethos?
• Do you teach and use self-monitoring and self-evaluation strategies?
• Do you use cooperative and social learning as often as possible?
• Do you regularly encourage learning from errors?
• Do you model by thinking 'out loud', giving names to the thinking skills you use?
• Do you provide initial scaffolding and support then withdraw as the learner gains confidence and can work independently?
• Do you plan opportunities for autonomous problem-solving?

Every teacher has a personal repertoire of tried and tested classroom skills and strategies that are used appropriately for differing needs and purposes. Working in a problem-solving and thinking skills way doesn't mean that we should never teach from the front, organise purposeful learning by rote, teach specific subject skills, give opportunities for necessary practice, show by demonstration or set individual work. However, teaching problem-solving and thinking skills within subjects and across the curriculum in a planned and coherent way actively develops learners' skills of 'learning how to learn', and actively increases their mental capacities.

We must always remember that any change to our usual style of teaching takes time to consolidate: but the TASC methodology is an extension of existing good practice and new strategies can be incrementally developed.

Most importantly, developing learners' problem-solving and thinking skills may initially take time, but once learners are familiar with the range of skills and are using them, they learn more efficiently and we save time.

The Framework for Thinking Actively in a Social Context evolved in line with 'living theory' and encapsulated a wide range of teaching and learning principles for developing thinking and problem-solving skills. [1] The early formative and simplified outline of these principles is given below:

First Gather and Organise what you already know about the subject, topic, problem, situation. Then decide how and where you can find out more information. All learners have a store of previous knowledge and learning: they need to fully recognise this and actively draw on and use prior learning. This stage brings into the working memory a range of ideas and knowledge ready for action.

Clearly Identify what the problem actually is by stating it simply as ‘What am I trying to do?’ (Goal[s]) and ‘What is preventing me from doing it?’(Obstacle[s]). Then decide on the criteria for success and work towards that (Possible Solution[s]). Many learners in situations of disadvantage and frustration are overwhelmed by the emotions of anger and injustice which are all-consuming and debilitating: taking control over the situation needs thoughtful, planned and sustained action.

Generate ideas - together with others, think of many possible ways of solving the problem without stopping any flow of thoughts by pre-judging the value of them. Hitch-hike on to other people’s ideas, think laterally, and allow all ideas without contradiction. All learners are creative, but many have been conditioned into being spoon-fed by the teacher because they think they have no ideas of their own.

Decide on the best ideas and outline a possible course(s) of action: plan the stages systematically: outline stages of the task clearly and discusswho is responsible for the carrying out of each stage of planning. Taking responsibility for personal decision-making and consequent action is fundamental to self-actualisation and self-efficacy.

Implement the ideas by putting the decision(s) into action, monitoring progress and adjusting plans as is necessary.

Evaluate progress and successes throughout the project, judged against the agreed goals, obstacles and solutions discussed at the Identify stage. If necessary, backtrack and reformulate ideas and plans previously agreed upon.

Communicate and share ideas throughout the whole project, but also take time to share and celebrate the outcomes and successes. Share successes with the wider community and discuss the stages and processes of overcoming obstacles and achieving goals.

Reflect and Learn from Experience - discuss the success of strategies that were used, evaluate the quality of the group interaction, reflect on how the successful strategies can be transferred to other situations including school. Discuss changes that need to be made in any future project to make the whole action more effective and sustainable.

Developing strategies and tools for effective thinking which feed into the TASC Problem-solving Wheel

Although there are a vast number of thinking tools that can feed into the TASC Problem-solving Wheel, the following diagram portrays a 'starter kit'. These core tools emerged over and over again in the original action research project which trialled and refined the TASC model and it is worth examining these in detail. These thinking tools not only apply to effective learning but also to effective living.

Figure 5: First level Extended Thinking Tools

Some of the most commonly used TASC tools for effective thinking (Wallace B, 2000)

Clarifying goals - What are we trying to do?

Many learners get confused with the complexity of the task and get sidetracked by irrelevant detail, often spending too much time decorating the final piece of work without being clear about the key messages they are presenting. It is essential that learners explain to each other what the actual purpose of task is; they need to be clear about their goals.

Creating a 'think-tank' - How many ideas can we think of?

Often, pupils jump into the 'doing' before considering a range of possibilities. Very able learners are used to quick and easy success - 'doing the stint' without too much effort: while less able pupils are relieved that they manage to have an idea at all! Spending a few minutes for the class to explore possibilities widens horizons and encourages creative thinking. Learners need to know that we all 'hitch-hike' on to other people's ideas and that teamwork is a good way to spark off thinking.

Looking at both sides of an idea - What is the opposite view?

Most young adolescents are egocentric and self-opinionated; and stepping into someone else's shoes in any situation inevitably brings about a more balanced opinion, decision or action. Role play, drama and discussion particularly help learners to develop a pattern of behaviour which automatically seeks the other viewpoint.

Exploring the consequences - What will happen if?

Young learners, particularly, tend to be impulsive, latching on to the first idea, the action or the conclusion before stopping to think of the possible consequences. The highly creative thinker can often think of another interpretation, another method or solution; and we need to encourage all learners to change the accepted and the usual way of thinking and doing.

Looking all round an idea - What are all the factors to consider?

Gathering all the evidence, getting an overview, assembling all the relevant information are essential pre-planning stages. Pupils are less likely to make mistakes or to draw inadequate conclusions if they are fully prepared beforehand. They are less likely to be thrown by factors they never considered.Prioritising - Which is the most important?

Sequencing ideas and actions in order of importance, lies at the root of summarising, efficiency and the effective accomplishment of goals. Far too many learners waffle and go round in circles, not really knowing where they are going or the most efficient way to get there.

Consulting others - What do other people think?

Most people learn best when they can share with others - exchanging knowledge, ideas, methods and experience. We are social beings and become cooperative and responsible through interaction with good group role models.

Making connections - How do the ideas link?

In school we all acquired large amounts of fragmented knowledge which we memorised, spat out and mostly forgot. Unless learners first recall what they already know, and then make meaningful links with the new knowledge, the latter soon disappears; and as teachers we usually resort to repetition and drill so that learners 'remember'. Memory works best when we can make the links, see the relevance, and use the new knowledge to solve problems. Making mindmaps of any kind helps pupils to absorb in a meaningful way and then they can more easily recall the knowledge, skills and methods as a whole learning experience.

Extending the TASC Tools for Effective Thinking

Figure 6: Extending the TASC Tools for Effective Thinking

There are many thinking action words that can be called tools for effective thinking. Some of these are subject specific, while others are general and used across the curriculum. Figure --- gives a comprehensive collection of cross-curricular thinking tools. This is useful as a checklist when planning classroom activities. Most of the tools are both necessary and suitable for all learners although the language would need to be adjusted to suit the level of understanding of various groups of learners.

Extending children's questions for thinking

Figure 7: Extending children's questions for thinking

All pupils need to develop a repertoire of questions which promote their thinking which they gradually learn to use automatically. For this to happen, we need to model the questions as we interact in the classroom and the learners need to have a framework that they can refer to when they are working. Figure ---provides a repertoire of questions which the pupils can keep in their 'thinking logbook' and refer to when they are working.

Conclusion - Why TASC: Thinking Actively in a Social Context?

A worldwide criticism of young people is that they do not think! And, sadly,

Nevertheless, developing learners' problem-solving and thinking skills should be an essential ingredient in the development of a humane and empowering curriculum; and there are real indications that curriculum planners realise that 'raising standards' means far more than prescribing and testing content. The National Curriculum Strategy does demand that learners learn a range of problem-solving and thinking skills, but what is not realised is that teaching and learning in this way needs less content and more thinking time. The development of thinking skills is not a matter of 'add-on' exercises but a holistic approach to the whole curriculum.

However, as teachers we also need to realise that spending time on developing learners' thinking skills makes them more efficient learners and when the pupils have a repertoire of effective problem-solving and thinking skills, we save time because the children are better able to learn.

We all learn best when we:

• understand and can see the relevance of what we are learning;
• can relate to our cultural context;
• can appreciate the purpose of the tasks that are set;
• can fit the fragments into the whole picture;
• have experiences of real success;
• use what we know to develop more complex mental schemes;
• can hook into new knowledge from the base we already have;
• acquire new techniques and thinking skills through modelling and demonstration
• practise skills that lead to confidence and competence

When the thinking skills tide comes in all ships rise!

References and Bibliography for Further Reading

Sternberg RJ, Davidson JE Conceptions of Giftedness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Sternberg RJ (1985) Beyond IQ. A triarchictheory of human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Vygotsky LS (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Wallace B, Adams HB (1993) TASC: Thinking Actively in a Social Context. Oxford: AB Academic Publishers

See the website bookshop for titles of TASC publications and TASC classroom resources.

[1] See Wallace and Maker 2004; and Wallace, Cave and Berry (2009) for the most recent TASC developments.